MPS Writing & Research

This guide presents techniques for evaluating information sources. This can help determine if a source is appropriate to use for your assignments and coursework. 

Information can be easy to find online, but figuring out if it is "good" information can be difficult. We evaluate sources to check if they are reliable, factual, valid, objective, and trustworthy. It is your right and your responsibility to critically evaluate all information sources that you rely on to create your own original work. 

The basic questions and criteria are the same for all types of information sources: books, articles, academic/scholarly publications, websites, media, artificial intelligence, and more.

ASK:

• WHO? - Authority - Who is the author or creator; what is their background and qualifications? Can you identify a writer or creator? Is the creator an individual, an organization, or a company? 

• WHY? - Purpose & Objectivity - Why are they presenting this information? Are they trying to persuade you, sell you something, or provide information? What is their point-of-view? Do they have a bias or prejudice?

• WHAT? - Accuracy of Content - Is the information based on facts and evidence? Do they cite their sources and explain how & where they got their information? Can you verify the information with more research?

• WHEN?- Timeliness -  Is there a publication date provided? Is the information current and up-to-date? Does it need to be? Is it acceptable to use older or historic information for your project?

• HOW? - Publication & Presentation - Is it published in a reputable source, like a newspaper, magazine, or journal? If it is a book, can you identify the publisher, such as a University Press? Is it well-organized and professional-looking?

For more information on how to evaluate websites and news, check out our Media Literacy guide. 

Criteria	Scholarly Journal	Popular Magazine	Trade Magazine/Journal
Sample Cover
Appearance	Plain cover and plain paper B/W graphics and illustrations, charts, etc. Pages consecutive throughout each volume	Eye-catching cover and glossy paper Pictures, photos and illustrations in full color Each issue starts with page 1	Cover depicts industrial theme or setting; glossy paper Pictures, photos and illustrations in color Each issue starts with page 1
Audience	Academics and professionals	General public	Members of a specific business, industry or organization
Authors	Experts or specialists, professors or researchers. Unpaid.	Journalists, staff or freelance writers. may be unsigned. Paid.	Staff writers, industry specialists, or vendor representatives. Paid.
Editorial Review	Editorial board and peer reviewers. Unpaid.	Professional editors. Paid.	Professional editors. Paid.
References / Works Cited	Almost always	Rarely	Sometimes
Content	Reports of results of research projects, essays, methodology and theory, reviews of academic books	Popular culture, personalities, news, and general interest	Industry trends, new products or techniques, advice, first-hand reports of practical experiences, organizational news
Advertisements	few or none	many	moderate, most are trade related
Examples	American Journal of Enology and Viticulture Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice Food Culture and Society International Journal of Hospitality Management Journal of Culinary Science & Technology	Gourmet Prevention Magazine Rolling Stone Sports Illustrated Vegetarian Times	Candy Industry Chef Magazine Fruit Gardener National Provisioner Nations Restaurant News Wines & Vines

Sample Journal	Journal of Food Science and Technology	Bon Appétit                             ​	Food Management
Stated Purpose	"Publishes peer reviewed research papers in... science, technology, packaging, and engineering of foods.... Special emphasis is given to fundamental and applied research...."	"Offers 'life through the lens of food' — cooking in, dining out, culture, travel, entertainment, shopping and design."	"Provides ideas for foodservice directors, managers and chefs through coverage of industry issues and events, operational topics and food trends that affect the noncommercial foodservice industry."
Sample Article Title	"Optimization of the production of shrimp waste protein hydrolysate using microbial proteases adopting response surface methodology"	"In search of the perfect meatball"	"UCLA hospitals go to antibiotic-free meats"

Adapted from Scholarly and Popular Materials by NCSU Libraries and Popular Magazines vs. Trade Magazines 
vs. Scholarly Journals by Colorado State University Libraries.

 

 

Purpose of Article	Type of Journal	Organization and Content	Bias	Date of Article
Bibliography	Usefulness And Relevance	Authority/Author	Coverage	Audience

 

• Purpose of Article: Why was the article written? To:
  • persuade the reader to do something? For example: vote a certain way, purchase an item, attend an event
  • inform the reader? For example: results of a study/experiment, what happened at an event
  • prove something? For example: that a behavior is bad/good, a method works/doesn't work

 

• Type of Journal: For college papers, information should be obtained mainly from scholarly journals.
  • Scholarly Journals contain articles describing high quality research that has been reviewed by experts in the field prior to publication.
  • Trade magazines are important for professionals and students preparing to enter an industry. For academic projects, they can be useful for industry information or economic data.
  • Popular magazines, such as Time, People, Bon Appetit, should be used sparingly, or not at all.

 

• Organization and Content: Is the material organized and focused? Is the argument or presentation understandable? Is this original research, a review of previous research, or an informative piece?

 

• Bias: Some publications have an inherent bias that will impact articles printed in them. Is the journal:
  • political?
  • an alternative press?
  • sponsored by a company or an industry lobby, such as a pharmaceutical company or a marketing board?
     
• Date of Article: Some topics, such as those in the sciences, require current information. Other subjects, such as history, value older material as well as current. Know the time needs of your topic and examine the timeliness of the article; is it:
  • up-to-date,
  • out-of-date, or
  • timeless?

 

• Bibliography: Scholarly works always contain a bibliography of the resources that were consulted. The references in this list should be in sufficient quantity and be appropriate for the content. Look for:
  • if a bibliography exists
  • if the bibliography is short or long
  • if the references are original journal articles or only summaries from encyclopedias, etc.
  • if the references are contemporary to the article or much older
  • if the citation style is clear and consistent

 

• Usefulness: Is the article relevant to the current research project? A well-researched, well-written article is not going to be helpful if it does not address the topic at hand. Ask, "is this article useful to me?" If it is a useful article, does it:
  • support an argument?
  • refute an argument?
  • give examples (survey results, primary research findings, case studies, incidents)?
  • provide "wrong" information that can be challenged or disagreed with productively?

 

• Authority: Is the author an expert in this field? Where is s/he employed? What else has s/he written?
   
• Coverage: Does the article cover the topic comprehensively, partially, or is it an overview?

 

• Audience: For what type of reader is the author writing? This ties in with the type of journal, as popular magazine are geared to the general reader, while trade magazines are for the specialist and scholarly journals are directed at researchers, scholars or experts in the field. Is the article for:
  • general readers?
  • students (high school, college, graduate)?
  • specialists or professional?
  • researchers or scholars?

 

• Illustrations: Are charts, graphs, maps, photographs, etc. used to illustrate concepts? Are the illustrations relevant? Are they clear and professional-looking?

 

Guide adapted from: Colorado State University Libraries How To Do Library Research / How to Evaluate Journal Articles
 

 

1. Who is the Author(s)? What are their credentials and qualifications? Are they objective or biased?

• Authors of journal articles are often making an argument; they are trying to convince you of something.
• Usually, authors present new, research-based information. Sometimes, authors can be biased and only present one side of the story.
• It is your right and responsibility to critically evaluate the information in the article. Your thoughts and judgments about articles are important; don't just accept what other authors say - question them!

 

2. How to Approach the Article

When you read journal articles, always remember that YOU are going to write a paper based on what you read.  So, do the following:

• Keep in mind your research question (ex. "What is leadership in the hospitality industry?")
• Focus on the information in the article that is relevant to your research question (it is okay to skim over other parts)
• Question everything you read - not everything is 100% true or correct
• Think critically about what you read and try to build your own argument based on it
   

3. Steps to Reading a Scholarly Research Article

Look at the structure of the article (many academic research articles use a standard format)

• Abstract (summary of the whole article)
• Introduction (why they did the research)
• Materials & Methodology (how they did the research)
• Results (what happened)
• Discussion (what the results mean)
• Conclusion (what they learned)
• References (whose research they read)

- First, Read the Abstract and Conclusion (these have the main points.) 

- Then, Read the Introduction and Discussion for more detail.

If you find anything in the Abstract or Conclusion that is important for your paper, look for it in the text.
If you need more information, then read through the Methods or Results sections.

 

4. How to Take Notes on the Article

There are various ways to take notes, but this is a personal style choice.  Try different ways, but use the one that fits you best.  Below are some suggestions for note-taking:

• Pay attention to what each section is about.  The Abstract, Discussion, and Conclusion sections usually have the most important information.
• Take notes while you are reading (that way you don't have to go back and re-read it when you write your paper)
• Write summarizing notes for main points
• Highlight only very important quotes or terms

 

5. How to Reference the Article

There are two main ways to reference an article in your paper:
 

Quoting

• Use quotations when the author’s original words are so special that you cannot reword it.
• Usually, use quotations for definitions.
• A good rule of thumb: 1 quotation per page maximum.
   

Paraphrasing (Summarizing)

• Use paraphrasing to tell your reader in your own words what the author had to say, in detail or in general terms.
• This is most commonly used in academic writing.
• A good rule of thumb: when writing a literature review, use 2-3 paraphrases per paragraph.

If you find text that you plan to quote or paraphrase, be sure to note the page # and citation info, so you don’t have to go back and find it when you write your Works Cited or References page.

 

Guide adapted from Pasadena City College WAC (Writing Across the Curriculum)/ Health Sciences Tutoring Lab
 

Scholarly books disseminate research and academic discussion among professionals within disciplines.  They are intended for academic study and research, and are preferred when writing college-level papers. They are published by academic or university presses.

Non-scholarly books typically do not examine a topic with a sufficient level of detail and intellectual rigor. They are not authoritative (the authors are often not academics). They are written to entertain and broadly inform, rather than to advance a field of study. Non-scholarly books are published by commercial presses. 

Keep in mind: a non-scholarly book may be academically appropriate to use for some topics.  The author may have experience and expertise in the subject. The information may be valid and useful for your coursework. Always check with your instructor and follow the assignment requirements.

 

Comparing Scholarly and Non-Scholarly Books

	Scholarly/Academic Book	Non-scholarly/Popular Book
Purpose	To share with other scholars the results of primary research & experiments.	To entertain or inform in a broad, general sense.
Author	A respected scholar or researcher in the field; an expert in the topic; names are always noted.	A journalist or feature writer; names not always noted.
Publisher	A university press; a professional association or known (independent) scholarly publisher.	A commercial publisher.
Intended audience	Other scholars or researchers in the field, or those interested in the topic at a research level.	General public.
Style	Language is formal and technical; usually contains discipline-specific jargon.	Language is casual. Few, if any, technical terms are used (and if they are, they are usually defined).
References	References are always cited and expected; text often contains footnotes.	Very uncommon; text may contain referrals to "a study published at..." or "researchers have found that..." with no other details.

 

Adapted from University of Toronto Libraries 

There are many websites that are appropriate for academic work such as sites from academic institutions, government organizations, and professional associations. 

Search tip ~ Use Google Advanced Search to limit your results to a domain like .edu, .org or .gov

 

Guidelines to Determine Credibility and Reliability
 

CRITERIA:

• Authority – WHO?
• Objectivity & Purpose – WHY?
• Accuracy of content – WHAT?
• Currency – WHEN?
• Coverage & Design – HOW?

 

Questions to Ask: 

For example, apply the following questions to these two sites and compare:  www.fda.gov and www.fda.com

WHO?

• Who is the author and what are their qualifications, expertise or credentials?
• Is the site from a reputable organization or institution?
• Is there contact information provided?
• What can the URL and domain tell you? For example: .com, .org, .edu,  .gov.

WHY?

• What is the purpose of the Web site?
• Is there a mission statement or "About Us" page? 
• Is the site balanced and objective? Is there a particular point of view or bias?
• Is there advertising and what kind? Is the site trying to sell you something?

WHAT?

• Does the site provide accurate factual information that can be verified?
• Are the sources cited? Is there a reference list or bibliography?
• Could the page or site be ironic, like a satire or a spoof?

WHEN?

• When was the site created and last updated?
• Are the links current and working?

HOW?

• Is the site easy to read, use and navigate?
• Is there a site map or a “Help” page? Is there a search function for the site?